Peter Heather, Empires and Barbarians: the Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe. New
York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
If one has ever wondered just how the barbarian invasions of Rome might have actually happened, look no further than Peter Heather’s Empires and Barbarians, a comprehensive study of the patterns of migration and cultural development in late ancient Europe. Tackling the first millennium, Heather addresses a world of changing identities and migrating tribes that used the developed Roman Empire as a catalyst for growth in to nation states. This books strides the middle ground in the debate over whether the barbarians invaded or migrated, taking “full account of all the positive aspects of the revisionist thinking, while avoiding its traps.”
Heather objects the school of thought that the migrations were made by homogenous people groups and tribes, attributing the theory to faulty generalizations of Roman accounts and “runaway nationalism” amongst historians – notably the Nazis. Rather, he considers the “tribes” to be a loose and malleable confederation of different groups, forged together on the march. Though Jordanes offers a “textbook” opinion on the classic invasion theory, Heather takes the stance that the Germanic tribes were not one king and one people, but were rather very spread out and never united. He points out three major migrations into Roman territory in the West’s latter days: the initial flight from the Huns in the mid-300s; the dispersal of Attila’s subjects in the years following his death; and that of the Franks and Anglo-Saxons, the last simply hopping into the chaotic space left by the initial break-ins. Heather’s reasons for their sudden ability to defy Roman might are based around the concepts of political restructuring and development.
One of Heather’s favorite standards for the early stages of barbarian improvement is the military gathering at Strasbourg in 357. Unlike their regional ancestors living at the time of Christ, these fourth century Germans sported a stronger political system that allowed them to field more soldiers under kings. Heather turns to Ammianus’ account to establish that the Germans had revamped their leadership structure beyond simply organizing a good turnout, having evolved said kingships and a coordination within their confederations’ that substantially improved their political lifespan. Moreover, these kings came equipped with shiny new war bands that gave them enough clout to rise up above their people. Strasburg signals for Heather the early stages of a complete overhaul of the Barbarian tribe, a development that eventually had a direct impact upon the fall of Rome’s borders, as the barbarians fleeing their Hunnic enemies were far more suited for migration into hostile territory than their first century ancestors.
The arrival of the Romans is attributed as the catalyst to the dramatic changes experienced by the Barbarians. Initially, Roman soldiers policing the border turn to the locals for whatever materials they need, rather than relying upon the empire to provide them. Thus, trade with the locals begins almost at once, the wealthy barbarians – later kings – benefiting the most. Naturally the nearby wealth represents a surplus income for the enterprising barbarian and the stereotypical cross-border raids ensue, with routine Roman counter-expeditions following in short order, often ending with subsidy payments being made to those kings willing enough to grovel at Roman feet. This additional income stimulates further barbarian social development, and also encourages neighboring tribes to have a go at ousting those currently benefiting from Roman affiliation, and so the vicious cycle continues throughout the first half of the book. Heather’s raiders are drawn like moths to a flame as Rome creates a “two-speed Germania whose economy and society worked at higher and more intense levels of development the closer you got to the Roman frontier, and vice versa.” Even the Huns, from all the way across Asia, are eventually subjected to the gravitational pull of the Roman economy and come a-wandering in the direction of the goods. In Heather’s view, Rome ironically strengthened its neighbors through trade until they were strong enough to challenge the emperor’s authority.
So when the Roman Empire’s borders crumble, it is not so much a case of bloodthirsty raiders plunging into the imperial heartland intent on slaughter. Rather, it is a combination of the above elements: migrations away from danger – stimulated by a healthy fear of the Huns – and Roman proximity. But once the barbarians are in the empire, the formerly divisive tribes suddenly seem to behave with startling coherence. They are definitely still immigrants, Heather argues, albeit predatory. What the author sees are barbarians forced to undergo another cultural shift that forges them into stronger – yet malleable – political and martial bodies that provide protection and encourages the Romans to come to terms rather than commit to a costly war that might not even destroy the menace in the end. What this means for the author is that these survival-based affiliations eventually morph into kingdoms, made possible by the Roman socio-economic prosperity that raised up their barbarian neighbors in the first place. This process continues even once Rome is out of the picture: the Frankish kingdoms directly profit from this heritage so that, once Justinian removes the Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy, the northern Franks are allowed to expand unchecked. By the ninth and tenth centuries, the “barbarian” kingdoms in northern Europe are massive, and much more powerful than the petty chiefdoms that had bickered over Roman subsidies. They have come from building hill forts to constructing castles, maintaining professional armies, raising churches, and improving infrastructure. They remain rather rustic by comparison to Rome, failing to keep proper written records – and thereby forgoing the associated administration that accompanies such bookkeeping – and upholding old traditions of taxation, like itinerancy. But these new empires serve the purpose of furthering state development in the north: they share wealth (through economy and time-honored raiding) and their menacing presence encourages their comparatively tribal neighbors to solidify and build up confederations and states of their own.
The complex social history of Empires and Barbarians is woven from a multitude of sources. Heather is indefatigable in his examination of the evidence. He briefly states that “our ignorance of the Huns is astounding,” then launches into a nearly sixty-page chapter on their culture and impact upon the movements and politics in Europe. Heather does an outstanding job cross-referencing materials, drawing upon archeology, economic data, chronicles, and contemporary studies to produce a picture of what the world probably looked like. For instance, Roman frontier strategy – kill malefactors and devastate their lands, force their neighbors to kowtow, reward those who impress – is applied to archeology to determine that the Rhine/Weser region was a particularly violent area, given that there are less Roman imports discovered there, implying that the region was less prosperous – all evidence that lines up perfectly with the imperial records concerning that place. But Heather tries to not let his imagination run too wildly and remains considerate of his sources. One is tempted to wonder, though, if the author takes too many liberties at times. Though he remains ambiguous as best he can with words such as “may” and “could have,” Heather does take some questionable liberties with the data. Granted, the available information is scant in many cases, but he does not hesitate to use legal codes from sixth and seventh centuries to shed light on the social strata of the fourth century. Given that the gap between the texts and their hopeful application is similar to that dividing Strasburg’s war bands and kings from the first century raiders, the documents’ value in such a situation is questionable – though Heather is upfront about this.
As for readability, Heather is a master at conveying dense knowledge. Since the material is presented as a survey, its information offered in doses restricted to subjects, Heather does not follow a strictly chronological narrative, and he often makes odd reference to the more prominent events, such as Strasburg. This raises the difficulty of following the finer details. He moves in and around the innumerable barbarian tribes at blinding speed so that Alans, Ostrogoths, Marcomanni, and Seuvi only stand out from Huns because the latter are given their own chapter. His attention to detail is remarkable as well; taken as a whole, the sheer volume of information presented on a single page is mind numbing, though Heather is a talented author and makes such a tedious examination of the evidence engaging enough to render the average sentence reasonably painless.
Despite its nature as a survey, Empires and Barbarians is a very readable book, suitable for either the academic in search of details or for the casual student of history who simply wants some deeper answers to questions about early Europe. Heather’s approach has many winning characteristics, being engaging yet detailed, and carefully explaining his reasoning on any given topic. Weighing in at 618 pages, along with copious endnotes and maps, this book certainly adds a great deal to the ongoing debates concerning Rome’s fall.
Image taken from Sword and Sandal Gaming.'s review of the same book.
No comments:
Post a Comment